Pioneering Archaeological Research

Pioneering Archaeological Research

Research into Malaya’s prehistory took off in the 1930s under the leadership of the Raffles Library and Museum.

By Foo Shu Tieng

(Top, from left) Bone tool from Perlis; neolithic tool from Tanjong Bunga, Johor; neolithic kiln-stand from Tui Gold Mine, Pahang; hoabinhian biface tool from Gua Musang, Kelantan; stone bark-cloth beater from Ampang, Selangor. (Bottom, from left) Hoabinhian biface tool from Pahang; necked stone axe from Guak Kepah, Province Wellesley; round-axe from Baling, Kedah; round axe from Tanjong Bunga, Johor. Images reproduced from M.W.F. Tweedie, “The Stone Age in Malaya,” Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 26, no. 2 (162) (October 1953): plate 10. (From JSTOR via NLB’s eResources website).

The Raffles Library and Museum, the predecessor of today’s National Library Singapore, played an important role in the archaeological research of the region. While there was some archaeological research about the Malay Peninsula in the 19th century, it was only from the mid-1930s, under the leadership of the museum, that the pace and intensity of these activities increased.1

Neolithic potsherd from Gua Bama, Pahang (top) and neolithic potsherd from Baling Kedah (left). Images reproduced from M.W.F. Tweedie, “The Stone Age in Malaya,” Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 26, no. 2 (162) (October 1953): plate 10. (From JSTOR via NLB’s eResources website).

With Eugène Dubois’ discovery of the Java Man (Homo erectus) fossils in 1891–92 at Trinil on the island of Java, Asia was thought to be “the cradle of mankind”.2 Gold ornaments discovered at Fort Canning in 1928 also hinted at Singapore’s potential antiquity.3 Grafton Elliot Smith – an Australian anatomy professor who famously x-rayed Egyptian mummies to learn about mummification methods and theorised about the way brains evolved – had also urged for more work in the study of ancient times in Malaya in 1931. He lamented that it was “particularly humiliating to us as Englishmen that so little is being done” in comparison to what the Dutch and French researchers were able to achieve in the region.4

Researchers working under the centralising authority of the Raffles Library and Museum embarked on researching the prehistory of Malaya, first at Guar Kepah in Penang in 1934,5 and then, following an injection of US$20,000 from the Carnegie Corporation of New York (CCNY; an American philanthropic organisation), at other sites in the Malay Peninsula.6

Those funds were supplemented by a donation from the Empire Grants Committee of the Museums Association, based in the United Kingdom, that also partnered with the CCNY. The committee gave £1,000 to the Raffles Museum for the publication of manuscripts, for new museum furniture, and for the preparation of an index, introductory and life-history series.7 Eight display cases were purchased for a new “Hall of Asiatic Prehistory”, and exhibits were created with materials sent from many parts of Australasia.8

This would culminate with the Straits Settlements (comprising Melaka, Penang and Singapore) – represented by the Raffles Library and Museum – hosting its first congress on prehistory in Singapore in January 1938: the Third Congress of Prehistorians of the Far East. These meetings, which rotated its hosts, would later be formalised as the Far-Eastern Prehistory Association in 1953 and reorganised in 1976 as the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association.9

Delegates at the 1938 Third Congress of Prehistorians to the Far East in Singapore admiring Neolithic finds. (From left) H.D. Collings, assistant curator of the Raffles Museum, F.N. Chasen, director of the Raffles Museum, Mrs von Koenigswald, F.D. McCarthy, G.H.R. von Koenigswald, A.L. Hoops and Charlton Maxwell. Image reproduced from “Malaya in Ancient Times,” Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser, 25 January 1938, 2. (From NewspaperSG).

From an attendance of just 30 delegates in 1938, the participation grew to some 800 archaeologists and cultural heritage professionals who attended the congress in Chiang Mai, Thailand, in November 2022.10

The 1938 congress in Singapore offered visitors and researchers the opportunity to look at displays of stone tools collectively from across the Asian region at the “Hall of Asiatic Prehistory” at the Raffles Museum, an important milestone that would allow for later regional cross-comparisons. The first of its kind in the Malay Peninsula, the congress generated so much public interest that some Malayan newspapers even reported which ship the delegates had arrived on.11

Key Personalities

With its new-found funding and support, the Raffles Library and Museum began work. One of the first sites to be excavated was Guar Kepah in Penang. The dig, in 1934, was funded not only by a special grant by the Straits Settlements government but also with CCNY funds in its final stages.12

The northern end of a shell midden at Guar Kepah. Image reproduced from P.V. van Stein Callenfels, “An Excavation of Three Kitchen Middens at Guak Kepah, Province Wellesley, Straits Settlements,” Bulletin of the Raffles Museum Singapore, Straits Settlements, Series B, no. 1 (May 1936), Plate XXX, Figure 1. (From National Library Online).

The excavation in Guar Kepah built on the survey reports of George Windsor Earl, the Resident Councillor of Penang, who first reported the site in 1860, and Ivor H.N. Evans, an ethnographer and pioneering archaeologist based at the Perak Museum in Taiping (a part of the Federated Malay States [FMS] Museums), who revisited the site in 1930.13

One of the places Evans visited in Penang was Guar Kepah. This site consisted of three shell middens (mounds where shell remains formed the majority of artefacts), near the south bank of the Muda River, and is now estimated to be in use between 5,000 and 6,000 years ago.

A side profile photo of a shell midden at Guar Kepah. Image reproduced from P.V. van Stein Callenfels, “An Excavation of Three Kitchen Middens at Guak Kepah, Province Wellesley, Straits Settlements,” Bulletin of the Raffles Museum Singapore, Straits Settlements, Series B, no. 1 (May 1936), Plate XXX, Figure 2. (From National Library Online).

Evans reported that the top section of the Guar Kepah mound he saw had been mined for its lime by lime burners (lime has several industrial applications such as in construction, or for agriculture), and that “the remains of it are only elevated about two or three feet above the surrounding land”.14

Evans had trained under, and collaborated with, the renowned Dutch prehistorian and archaeologist Pieter Vincent van Stein Callenfels on cave excavations in 1926 and 1927 at Gua Badak and Gua Kerbau, both in Perak.15 (Unfortunately, Evans was retrenched by the FMS government in 1932 as the Great Depression had left the government with a severe budget deficit.16)

Dutch prehistorian and archaeologist Pieter Vincent van Stein Callenfels at an excavation in the Dutch East Indies, 1920–21. Courtesy of Leiden University Libraries.

In the 1934 Guar Kepah dig, Callenfels, who had excavated a similar shell midden site in Sumatra at Saentis near Medan, was the lead researcher responsible for the excavation report that would eventually be published in the first issue of the Bulletin of the Raffles Museum (Series B) in May 1936.17 He also publicised the discoveries via the Illustrated London News, which was later reprinted by the Malaya Tribune in January 1935. Not only were stone tools discovered, but human remains were also found at the site. Callenfels wrote: “Certain facts point to so-called secondary burials, the body being exposed to a tree, or somewhere else in the jungle, till the flesh decayed, when the remaining bones were collected and interred. Another interesting fact is that all the skulls were profusely sprinkled with powdered red shale.”18

As Callenfels was a recognised expert in the prehistory of Southeast Asia and had worked in many parts of Asia, he had an extensive network and was a key figure in applying for the CCNY funds for the Guar Kepah project.19

A caricature of P.V. van Stein Callenfels in the 17 June 1934 issue of the Sunday Tribune newspaper. (From NewspaperSG).

Michael Willmer Forbes Tweedie (M.W.F. Tweedie) and Herbert Dennis Collings (H.D. Collings), curator and assistant curator respectively at the Raffles Library and Museum, had supervised the Guar Kepah excavations. They were influenced by Callenfels’ use of systematic survey equipment such as a theodolite (which can measure width [distance] and depth) and compass in recording finds, although the method of stratigraphic recording (documenting soil layers in order to understand a sequence of events based on geological principles) and analysis would not be used until much later, in the mid-1950s.20

Victor Purcell, who joined the Malayan Civil Service in 1921 and who authored several books, noted the care in which Callenfels conducted the excavations: “[D]igging was not the word to describe the very delicate process whereby [Callenfels] disinterred the secrets of millennia dead and gone. He used a theodolite to measure levels and the excavation was done mainly with special wooden scrapers, and when the object to be disinterred was very precious, the final removal of earth was done with a brush or even a feather.”21

Cecil Boden Kloss, director of the Raffles Library and Museums during Evans’ exploration of the Guar Kepah site, also played an important role in the history of archaeological research in Malaya. He was supposedly  the one who decided to purchase the Guar Kepah site for future excavations, although this is difficult to verify.22 Kloss was officially appointed Director of Museums, FMS and Straits Settlements, in September 1926 after the retirement of previous FMS Museum director, Herbert Christopher Robinson. Kloss retired in 1931 and was succeeded by Frederick Nutter Chasen (F.N. Chasen), who visited the Guar Kepah site in 1933.23

Chasen and Collings attended the Second Congress of Prehistorians of the Far East in Manila in 1935, where Collings presented the preliminary finds from Guar Kepah.24 It was also during this meeting that the Raffles Library and Museum became a repository for centralising “typological and comparative collections of pre-historic objects from the whole of the further East” for regional comparisons by type of artefacts.25

However, questions still remain about how (and, more importantly, why) these archaeological projects really began at the Raffles Library and Museum. The timing of these projects seems curious, particularly since these projects began in the middle of the Great Depression (1929–39). 

The timing also raises the question of why an American philanthropic organisation was financing projects in British colonial territories during this period. From the available published research, it appears that Frederick Paul Keppel, the third Secretary of War for the United States during World War I (1914–18) and president of the CCNY in 1923, was instrumental in shifting the CCNY’s philanthropic interests outside of the US.26

According to Richard Glotzer, a professor of social work at the University of Akron, Keppel had “unique insight into the complex relationship between the growing international stature of the United States and the pre-eminence of Great Britain as a world power” and he “understood the Anglo American relationship was cultural, economic and strategic”.27

Sydney F. Markham, the secretary for the British Museums Association, who visited the Raffles Library and Museum in March 1934 as part of a great survey of the museums of the British Empire, was also another key figure. This is because the association had the ability to recommend the allocation of CCNY funds. Markham was impressed by the work of the Raffles Museum. “[T]he work of Mr M.W.F. Tweedie [curator at the Raffles Museum], his colleagues and predecessors, has been of such a high order that the result is wonderfully encouraging,” he said.28

A study of the CCNY’s allocation of Commonwealth funds published in 1963 showed that while CCNY funds were disbursed to many parts of the former British Empire for museum development, as part of a larger museum movement, Malaya was the only recipient of funding for prehistoric research.29

The Future of Archaeological Research

Thanks to a confluence of factors, archaeological research began at the Raffles Library and Museum in the 1930s. 

Source: M.W.F. Tweedie, “The Stone Age in Malaya.” Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 26, no. 2 (162) (October 1953). (From JSTOR via NLB’s eResources website)

Are there possibilities for further research? This is feasible since the private papers of H.D. Collings are now at the Suffolk Archives as he returned to the United Kingdom in his later years.30 However, some of the key personnel involved in the early archaeological projects died early. 

According to Tweedie’s final report to the CCNY dated 28 August 1946, Chasen lost his life in 1942 while attempting to flee Singapore on the eve of the Japanese invasion. Herbert Deane Noone (better known as H.D. Noone or Pat Noone), who was based at the Perak Museum in Taiping and responsible for the expenditure of CCNY funds in later years (such as the excavations in Kelantan in 1941), joined the guerrilla fighters during World War II and disappeared in 1943.31

Noone’s manuscript and personal papers were either lost in the looting of the Perak Museum in December 1941, or kept with Noone when he went into the jungle and disappeared.32 As for the Guar Kepah site, it has transformed into a cultural resource today, with many more researchers investigating the site and its artefacts in later periods. The Guar Kepah Archaeological Gallery is slated to open to display various finds.33

The Guar Kepah Archaeological Gallery in Penang will be opening soon. Photo by Foo Shu Tieng.
BOOKS RELATING TO THE HISTORY OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN SINGAPORE

As the Raffles Library and Museum was a predecessor institution to the current National Library and the National Museum of Singapore (with the Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum inheriting much of the Raffles Museum’s zoological reference collections), the National Library still retains many of the official publications relating to the prehistory of Malaya from this period.

These include some prewar publications such as the Bulletin of the Raffles Museum (Series B, nos. 1–4) which have been digitised, as well as postwar publications such as Michael Willmer Forbes Tweedie’s “Stone Age in Malaya” (1953) and Prehistory of Malaya (1955). There is also Stone Adzes of Southeast Asia: An Illustrated Typology by Roger Duff and published in 1970, describing many of the prehistoric stone tools collected at the Raffles Museum from this period.

The National Library also has some resources relating to Pieter Vincent van Stein Callenfels’ life and publications, but a few require more careful reading. Several publications suggest, for example, that Callenfels was the inspiration behind the character, Professor Challenger, the protagonist in Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s The Lost World. But Doyle clarified that he had modelled the peculiarities of Professor Challenger on Professor John Rutherford, an eminent Scottish physician at the University of Edinburgh Medical School.

REFERENCES
Bloembergen, Marieke and Martijn Rickhoff. “The Colonial Archaeological Hero Reconsidered,” In Historical Approaches to Past Archaeological Research, edited by Gisela Eberthardt and Fabian Link, 144. Berlin: Edition Topoi, 2015. Accessed 2 January 2025, http://dx.doi.org/10.17171/3-32 .

Bulletin of the Raffles Museum Singapore, Straits Settlements , Series B, no. 1 (May 1936). (From National Library Online)

Bulletin of the Raffles Museum, Colony of Singapore , Series B, no. 4 (December 1949). (From National Library Online)

Doyle, Arthur Conan. Memories and Adventures. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1924. Project Gutenberg. Accessed 9 January 2025, https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/66991/pg66991-images.html .

Duff, Roger. Stone Adzes of Southeast Asia: An Illustrated Typology . Christchurch: Canterbury Museum Trust Board, 1970. (From National Library Singapore, call no. RUR 915.903 DUF)

Ghosh, Nirmala. “Face Lift for a Grande Dame .” Business Times, 25 December 1993, 18. (From NewspaperSG)

McKie, R.C.H. “Callenfels of the Indies: Burly Scientist and ‘Character’.” Sydney Morning Herald, 11 June 1938, 13, https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/17470496 .

Swanenburg, B.D. Iwan De Verschrikkelijke: Leven En Werken Van Dr. P.V. van Stein Callenfels [Ivan the Terrible: Life and Works of Dr. P.V. van Stein Callenfels]. Maastricht: Feiter Nypels, 1951. (From National Library Singapore, call no. RUR 930.1092 SWA)

Tweedie, Michael Willmer Forbes. “The Stone Age in Malaya.” Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 26, no. 2 (162) (October 1953): 3–90. (From JSTOR via NLB’s eResources website)

Van Stein Callenfels, Pieter Vincent. Pedoman Singkat Untuk Pengumpulan Prasedjarah Dari Lembaga Kebudajaan Indonesia . Bandung: A.C. Nix, 1950. (From National Library, call no. RDTYS 572.95 STE)
Foo Shu Tieng is a Librarian with the National Library Singapore, and works with the Singapore and Southeast Asia Collection. Her responsibilities include collection management, content development, and the provision of reference and research services.

Notes

  1. G.L. Peet, “Between the Two Great Wars: Anglo-Malayan Reflections and Premonitions,” Straits Times Annual, 1 January 1941, 28–29. (From NewspaperSG) ↩

  2. Nancy Tayles and Marc Oxenham, eds., “Introduction: Southeast Asian Bioarchaeology Past and Present,” in Bioarchaeology of Southeast Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 4. (From National Library Singapore, call no. R 599.9470959 BIO); Ben Shephard, Head Hunters: The Search for a Science of the Mind (London: The Bodley Head, 2014), 220. (From National Library Singapore, call no. R 612.809 SHE); Edward Pop, Sofwan Noerwidi and Fred Spoor, “Naming Homo erectus: A review,” Journal of Human Evolution 190 (May 2024): 1, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2024.103516. ↩

  3. “Treasure Trove at Fort Canning,” Straits Times, 19 July 1928, 8. (From NewspaperSG); Natalie S.Y. Ong, “The So Called ‘Kāla Head’ Armband of Temasek,” Temasek Working Paper Series 6 (Singapore: Temasek History Research Centre, ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute, 2023), https://www.iseas.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/TWPS06_Natalie-Ong-LR.pdf. ↩

  4. Shephard, Head Hunters, 88–98, 110–13, 190–95, 206–07, 219–25; Roland Braddell, “An Introduction to the Study of Ancient Times in the Malay Peninsula and the Straits of Malacca,” Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 13, no. 2 (October 1935), 70. (From JSTOR via NLB’s eResources website) ↩

  5. Alternative early spellings for this site include Goa Cuppa and Guak Kepah.  ↩

  6. “Raffles Museum Adopted as Eastern Centre,” Straits Times, 24 August 1936, 13. (From NewspaperSG); Gretchen Liu, One Hundred Years of the National Museum Singapore 1887–1987 (Singapore: National Museum, 1987), 52–53. (From National Library Singapore, call no. RCLOS 708.95957 LIU) ↩

  7. “Raffles Museum Adopted as Eastern Centre.” ↩

  8. F.N. Chasen, Annual Report of the Raffles Museum and Library for the Year 1935 (Singapore: The Museum), 1. (From National Library Singapore, call no. RCLOS 027.55957 RAF); “Raffles Museum Adopted as Eastern Centre”; “Building Up the Prehistory of Malaya,” Morning Tribune, 18 June 1937, 9. (From NewspaperSG) ↩

  9. “Raffles Museum Adopted as Eastern Centre,” 13; “Savants to Visit Malacca,” Straits Times, 16 January 1938, 5. (From NewspaperSG); Rajamogan, The National Museum in Historical Perspective, 1874–1981 (Singapore: National University of Singapore, 1987), 38, 47. (From National Library Singapore, call no. RSING 708.95957 RAJ); Bernard Philippe Groslier, “The Far Eastern Prehistory Association 1953–1957,” Asian Perspectives 1, no. 1/2 (Summer 1957): v; Wilhelm G. Solheim II, “Reorganization of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, and the IXth Congress of the International Union of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences,” Asian Perspectives 20, no. 1 (1977): 173. (From JSTOR via NLB’s eResources website) ↩

  10. “The 22nd Congress of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association (IPPA 2022),” in SEAMEO SPAFA Annual Report 2022–2023 (Bangkok: SEAMEO Regional Centre for Archaeology and Fine Arts), 18, accessed 4 April 2025, https://www.seameo-spafa.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/SEAMEO-SPAFA-Annual-Report-2022-2023.pdf. ↩

  11. “St. John Ambulance Brigade in Singapore: Indo-China Delegates to Prehistorians Congress Which Assembled in Singapore This Week,” Malaya Tribune, 22 January 1938, 20. (From NewspaperSG) ↩

  12. P.V. van Stein Callenfels, “An Excavation of three Kitchen Middens at Guak Kepah, Province Wellesley, Straits Settlements,” Bulletin of the Raffles Museum Singapore, Straits Settlements, Series B, no. 1 (May 1936): 26. (From National Library Online)  ↩

  13. George Windsor Earl, “On the Mounds of Province-Wellesley, in the Malay Peninsula,” Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London 2 (1863): 119. (From JSTOR via NLB’s eResources website); Ivor H.N. Evans, “On Ancient Kitchen Middens in Province Wellesley,” Journal of the Federated Malay States Museums 15 (February 1930): 15–18. (From National Library Singapore, call no. RCLOS 708.9595 JFMSM) ↩

  14. Evans, “On Ancient Kitchen Middens,” 17; Dorn Carran, John Hughes, Alick Leslie and Craig Kennedy, “A Short History of the Use of Lime as a Building Material Beyond Europe and North America,” International Journal of Architectural Heritage 6, no. 2 (2012): 284, https://doi.org/10.1080/15583058.2010.511694. ↩

  15. P.V. van Stein Callenfels and I.H.N. Evans, “Report on Cave Excavations in Perak,” Oudheidkundig Verslag [Report on Antiquities], (1926): 181–92. (From National Library Singapore, call no. RCLOS 708.051 ODNOV-[LYF]); Victor Purcell, The Memoirs of a Malayan Official (London: Casell, 1965), 277. (From National Library Singapore, call no. RCLOS 959.5 PUR) ↩

  16. The Wanderer, “Mainly About Malayans,” Straits Times, 31 July 1932, 4 (From NewspaperSG) ↩

  17. Julien Louys, “Quaternary Paleontological and Archaeological Research in Sumatra,” in Quaternary Paleontology and Archaeology of Sumatra ed. Julie Louys, Paul C. H. Albers and Alexandra A. E. van der Geer (Canberra: ANU Press, 2024), 5. (From JSTOR via NLB’s eResources website); Callenfels, “An Excavation of Three Kitchen Middens at Guak Kepah, Province Wellesley, Straits Settlements,” 26.  ↩

  18. “An Advance in Far-Eastern Prehistory Relics of Australo-Melanesoid Culture,” Malaya Tribune, 29 January 1935, 16. (From NewspaperSG) ↩

  19. “Carnegie Grant for Malayan Research,” Straits Times, 18 January 1935, 16. (From NewspaperSG) ↩

  20. M.W.F. Tweedie, “Report on Excavations in Kelantan,” Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 18, part 2 (August 1940): 18. (From National Library Singapore, call no. RCLOS 959.5 JMBRAS); B.A.V. Peacock, “A Short Description of Malayan Prehistoric Pottery,” Asian Perspectives 3, no. 2 (Winter 1959): 123. (From JSTOR via NLB’s eResources website) ↩

  21. Purcell, The Memoirs of a Malayan Official, 283.  ↩

  22. “An Advance in Far-Eastern Prehistory Relics of Australo-Melanesoid Culture”; Liu, One Hundred Years of the National Museum Singapore 1887–1987, 45. ↩

  23. “Mr. C. Boden Kloss,” Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser, 12 December 1931, 10; “M.A.P,” Straits Echo (Mail Edition), 27 September 1926, 1075. (From NewspaperSG); Alexandra Avieropoulou Choo, Archaeology: A Guide to the Collections, National Museum Singapore (Singapore: National Museum, 1987), 6. (From National Library Singapore, call no. RCLOS 934.1074095957 CHO) ↩

  24. Choo, Archaeology, 8; National Museum Singapore, “Second Congress for Prehistoric Research in the Far East to Be Held at Manila on 6th to 12th Feb, 1935,” Government Records, December 1934–April 1935. (From National Archives of Singapore, record reference no. CSO CONSULS FM 9222–34) ↩

  25. Rajamogan, “The National Museum in Historical Perspective,” 28–29.  ↩

  26. Richard Glotzer, “Frederick P. Keppel and Carnegie Corporation’s Interwar Area Experts: An Overview,” American Educational History Journal 33, no. 1 (2006): 49–50. (From ProQuest via NLB’s eResources website) ↩

  27. Glotzer, “Frederick P. Keppel and Carnegie Corporation’s Interwar Area Experts,” 50. ↩

  28. “Grants for Malayan Museums?” Straits Times, 8 March 1934, 19; “Valuable Work of the Raffles Museum,” Singapore Free Press and Mercantile Advertiser, 9 March 1934, 7. (From NewspaperSG); “Outlying Museums of the Empire,” Nature 133 (1934): 538, https://www.nature.com/articles/133538a0; S.F. Markham, “The Museums of British Malaya,” in Reports on the Museum of Ceylon, British Malaya, the West Indies, etc, ed. Henry Alexander Miers (London: Museums Association, 1933), 15–19.  ↩

  29. Stephen H. Stackpole, Commonwealth Program 1911–1961 (New York: Carnegie Corporation of New York, 1963), 23–59, accessed 20 January 2025, https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015016481221&seq=43; Donald Fisher, “Rockefeller Philanthropy and the Rise of Social Anthropology,” Anthropology Today 2, no. 1 (February 1986): 5–8. (From JSTOR via NLB’s eResources website); Ian McShane, The Museum Movement: Carnegie Cultural Philanthropy and Museum Development in the Anglosphere, 1920–1940 (London: Routledge, 2025), 57–85. ↩

  30. “Herbert Dennis Collings (1905–2001),” Suffolk Record Office (reference number 2089/2), accessed 4 March 2025, https://www.suffolkarchives.co.uk/collections/getrecord/GB175_2089_2. ↩

  31. Wilhelm G. Solheim II, Floyd Wheeler and Jane Allen-Wheeler, “Archaeology in Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore,” in Malaysian Studies: Archaeology, Historiography, Geography, and Bibliography, ed. John A. Lent and Kent Mulliner ([De Kalb, Ill.]: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University 1986), 3–4. (From National Library Singapore, call no. RSING 959.5 MAL) ↩

  32. Solheim II, Wheeler and Wheeler, “Archaeology in Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore,” 3–4.  ↩

  33. Opalyn Mok, “Guar Kepah Archaeological Gallery in Penang Open to Public by End 2024,” Malay Mail, 14 May 2024,  https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2024/05/14/guar-kepah-archaeological-gallery-in-penang-open-to-public-by-end-2024/134279; “41 Prehistoric Remains to Return to Malaysia From the Netherlands,” Straits Times, 14 November 2024, https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/41-prehistoric-remains-to-return-to-malaysia-from-the-netherlands. ↩

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